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ISO 3166-2:ER

ISO 3166-2:ER

ISO 3166-2:ER is an ISO standard which defines geocodes: it is the subset of ISO 3166-2 which applies to Eritrea.

Newsletters

- ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21

Codes

ISO

:ISO redirects here. For other uses, see Iso. Iso The International Organization for Standardization (ISO or iso) is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from national standards bodies. Founded on February 23 1947, the organization produces world-wide industrial and commercial standards. While the ISO defines itself as a non-governmental organization, its ability to set standards which often become law through treaties or national standards makes it more powerful than most NGOs, and in practice it acts as a consortium with strong links to governments. Participants include several major corporations and at least one standards body from each member country. ISO cooperates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which is responsible for standardization of electrical equipment. The organization is usually referred to simply as ISO (pronounced eye-so). It is a common misconception that ISO stands for "International Standards Organization", or something similar. ISO is not an acronym; it comes from the Greek word isos, meaning "equal". In English, the organization’s long-form name is "International Organization for Standardization", while in French it is called "Organisation internationale de normalisation"; to use an acronym would result in different acronyms in ISO’s official languages, English (IOS) and French (OIN), thus the founders of the organization chose "ISO" as the universal short form of its name. ISO standards are numbered, and have a format that contains "ISO[/IEC] [IS] nnnnn[:yyyy]: Title" where "nnnnn" is the standard number, "yyyy" is the year published, and "Title" describes the subject. IEC will only be included if the standard results from work of JTC1. The date and IS will always be left off an incomplete or unpublished standard, and may (under certain circumstances) be left off the title of the published work. Aside from standards, ISO also creates Technical Reports for documents that cannot or should not become International Standards such as references, explanations, etc. The naming conventions for these are the same as for standards with the exception of having TR prepended in the place of IS in the standard's name. Examples:
- ISO/IEC TR 17799:2000 Code of Practice for Information Security Management
- ISO TR 15443-1/3 Information Technology - Security Techniques - A Framework for IT Security Assurance parts 1-3 Finally, ISO will on rare occasions issue a Technical Corrigendum. These are amendments to existing standards because of minor technical flaws, improvements to usability or to extend applicability in a limited way. Generally, these are issued with the expectation that the affected standard will be updated or withdrawn at its next scheduled review. ISO documents are copyrighted and ISO charges for copies of most. ISO does not, however, charge for most draft copies of documents in electronic format. Although useful, care must be taken using these drafts as there is the possibility of substantial change before it becomes finalized as a standard. Some ISO standards are made freely available. For example http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2489/Ittf_Home/PubliclyAvailableStandards.htm http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/free_standards.asp During the 1990s, ISO gained a reputation for being slow, bureaucratic, congested, and insensitive to feedback from both vendors and their customers. One problematic project was the enormous Open Systems Interconnect project, which attempted the development of one single computer networking standard, but was finally shut down in 1996 after becoming mired in interoperability problems and bickering between vendors. Attention then turned to the volunteer-based, open-process and non-profit Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), which develops the standards necessary for the Internet to function. When IETF turned out to be too slow, vendors began funding more focused, agile consortia like the W3C, another open, non-profit organisation headed by the inventor of the World Wide Web, Tim Berners-Lee. Since then, ISO has undertaken modest reforms to decrease the time required to promulgate new standards. ISO International Standards are not in any way binding on either governments or industry merely by virtue of being International Standards. This is to allow for situations where certain types of standards may conflict with social, cultural or legislative expectations and requirements. This also reflects the fact that national and international experts responsible for creating these standards do not always agree and not all proposals become standards by unanimous vote. The individual nations and their standards bodies remain the final arbiters. The fact that many of the ISO-created standards are ubiquitous has led, on occasion, to common usage of "ISO" to describe the actual product that conforms to a standard. Some examples of this are:
- CD images end in the file extension "ISO" to signify that they are using the ISO 9660 standard filesystem (there are other file systems that can be used) - hence CD images are commonly referred to as "ISOs". Virtually all computers with CD-ROM drives can read CDs that use this standard. DVD-ROMs also use ISO 9660 filesystems.
- Photographic film sensitivity to light, its speed, is measured and determined by ISO standard, hence the film speed is often referred to as its "ISO number". There are equivalent standards giving us its ASA and DIN.

ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1

To deal with the consequences of substantial overlap in areas of standardization and work related to information technology, ISO and IEC formed a Joint Technical Committee known as the ISO/IEC JTC1. It was the first such committee, and to date remains the only one. Its official mandate is: Develop, maintain, promote and facilitate IT standards required by global markets meeting business and user requirements concerning:
- design and development of IT systems and tools,
- performance and quality of IT products and systems
- security of IT systems and information
- portability of application programs
- interoperability of IT products and systems
- unified tools and environments
- harmonized IT vocabulary
- user friendly and ergonomically designed user interfaces There are currently 18 sub-committees:
- SC 02 - Coded Character Sets
- SC 06 - Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems
- SC 07 - Software and System Engineering
- SC 17 - Cards and Personal Identification
- SC 22 - Programming Languages, their Environments and Systems Software Interfaces
- SC 23 - Removable Digital Storage Media Utilizing Optical and/or Magnetic Recording
- Technology for Digital
- SC 24 - Computer Graphics and Image Processing
- SC 25 - Interconnection of Information Technology Equipment
- SC 27 - IT Security Techniques
- SC 28 - Office Equipment
- SC 29 - Coding of Audio, Picture, and Multimedia and Hypermedia Information
- SC 31 - Automatic Identification and Data Capture Techniques
- SC 32 - Data Management and Interchange
- SC 34 - Document Description and Processing Languages
- SC 35 - User Interfaces
- SC 36 - Information Technology for Learning, Education, and Training
- SC 37 - Biometrics Membership in ISO/IEC JTC1 is restricted in much the same way as membership in either of the two parent organizations. A member can be either participating (p) or observing (O) and the difference is mainly the ability to vote on proposed standards and other product. There is no requirement for any member body to maintain either (or any) status on all of the sub-committees. Although rare, sub-committees can be created to deal with new situations (SC 37 was approved only in the last year) or disbanded if the area of work is no longer relevant.

External links

- [http://www.iso.org/ ISO's official website] (free access to the catalogue of standards only, not to the contents)
- [http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2489/Ittf_Home/PubliclyAvailableStandards.htm Publicly Available Standards] (free access to a small subset of the standards)
- [http://www.standardsglossary.com/ The ISO Standards Glossary]
- [http://www.jtc1.org/ ISO/IEC JTC1] Category:non-governmental organizations Category:Standards organizations
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- zh-min-nan:ISO ko:국제 표준화 기구 ja:国際標準化機構

ISO 3166-2

ISO 3166-2 is the second part of the ISO 3166 standard. It is a geocode system created for coding the names of subdivisions of countries (subnational entities) and dependent areas. The purpose of the standard is to establish a worldwide series of short abbreviations for places, for use on package labels, containers, and such; anywhere where a short alphanumeric code can serve to clearly indicate a location in a more convenient and less ambiguous form than the full place name. There are around 3700 different codes.

Format

ISO 3166-2 codes consist of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code element, the second is alphabetic or numeric and has one, two or three digits. The second part often is based on national standards.

Changes / Editions

Changes were announced in 6 Newsletters # ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21 # ISO 3166-2:2002-05-21 # ISO 3166-2:2002-08-20 # ISO 3166-2:2002-12-10 # ISO 3166-2:2003-09-05 # ISO 3166-2:2004-03-08 # ISO 3166-2:2005-09-13

Decoding / Encoding lists

To find the ISO 3166-2 codes for each country see ISO 3166-1, a list of countries. If you are familiar with the two-letter country codes (similar to internet country codes) you can also use the format matrix given below. Both ways would lead to articles like ISO 3166-2:XX, where XX stands for the ISO 3166-1 code, e.g. ISO 3166-2:AU leads to the code list for Australia.

Format matrix with links to codes

Some of the codes are developed by ISO 3166/MA, these are copyrighted. Others are already in use in the specific countries.

length	alpha	numeric	alpha-numeric
constant 1 char	Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: AR, BO, CR, EC, FJ, GM, KI, KM, LS, LU, MG, NE, RW, SL, ST, TG, TM, VE	GA, IS, AT	PA
constant 2 chars	Free: CH, US Partially free: AL, ID ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: AE, AM, BI, BJ, BN, BR, BS, BW, BY, CA, CD, CF, CL, CM, CV, CZ, DE, DJ, ER, ET, FI, GE, GH, GN, GT, GW, GY, HN, HT, HU, IN, IT, IQ, JO, KW, LA, LB, LR, LT, LV, LY, MD, MU, MW, NA, NG, NI, NL, NP, OM, PK, PL, QA, SB, SH, SK, SN, SO, SR, SV, SY, SZ, TJ, TL, UY, UZ, WS, YE, YU, ZA, ZW	Free: Partially free: TN ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: BD, BG, BH, CI, CN, CU, CY, DO, DZ, EE, GR, HR, IR, JM, JP, KR, LK, MM, MY, NO, PT, SA, SD, TR, TZ, UA, UM, VN, ZM	Free: FR Unsorted: BT
constant 3 chars	Free: Partially free: KP ISO - Copyright: MA Unsorted: AO, AF, BA, BE, BF, CS, FM, GB, KZ, MD, MH, MX, NZ, PE, PG, PH, TT, TW	Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: DK, KE, SI, UG, VU
mixed 1,2 chars	Free: IE Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: no system?: ES, GQ, IL 1 for regions, 2 for capital: KG 1 for capital, 2 for departments: RO 1 as the general rule, 2 for exceptions SE	Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: KH	Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: TH
mixed 2,3	Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: CO Unsorted: ?:AU, BZ, EG, TD 2 for republics, 3 for cities, regions, districts: RU 2 for cities, 3 for rayons: AZ 2 for capital, 3 other: ??		MR, MV
mixed 1,3	Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: MZ	Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: MN	Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted: ML
mixed 1,2,3			Free: Partially free: ISO - Copyright: Unsorted:CG, PY

External links

- [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/iso_3166-2_track.html Track changes], sorted by country
- http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/04background-on-iso-3166/iso3166-2.html
- http://www.unece.org/cefact/locode/service/sublocat.htm
- [http://geotags.com/iso3166/ This] says that it has permission to reproduce all codes. Some codes and names are outdated.
- [http://www.hostip.info Uses ISO codes internally] in the free geolocation database download
- http://www.mindspring.com/~mjfriedman/countrysubentity.txt 2 ISO 3166-2 ja:ISO 3166-2 th:ISO 3166-2

ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21

ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21 is an ISO Newsletter (numbered 1) which was issued on June 6 2000. This Newsletter announced changes to ISO 3166-2. Affected codes were:

External links

- [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nli-1.pdf Online copy (PDF)] hosted by ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21 N:2000-06-21 th:ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21

ISO 3166-1

ISO 3166-1 as part of the ISO 3166 standard provides codes for the names of countries and dependent areas. It was first published in 1974 by the International Organization for Standardization and defines three different codes for each area:
- ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, a two-letter system with many applications, most notably the Internet top-level domains (ccTLD) for countries.
- ISO 3166-1 alpha-3, a three-letter system.
- ISO 3166-1 numeric, a three-digit numerical system, is identical to that defined by the United Nations Statistical Division. A country or territory generally gets new alpha codes if its name changes, whereas a new numeric code is associated with a change of boundaries. Some codes in each series are reserved, for various reasons; obsolete codes may be kept as reserved, borders may be considered likely to change, and some overseas territories have reserved codes of their own. ISO 3166-1 is not the only standard for country codes. The IOC and FIFA have their own lists (see List of IOC country codes and List of FIFA country codes) of three-letter codes which mostly correspond to the ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes.

ISO 3166-1 code list

The following is intended to be a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding code list in alphabetical order by country names (official short names in English designated by ISO). The table includes formal codes only. For reserved codes, see ISO 3166-1 alpha-2#ISO 3166-1 Alpha-2 Reserved Code Elements list and ISO 3166-1 alpha-3#Reserved Code Elements list. ISO 3166-1 does not have numeric reserved codes.

Newsletters

Changes to ISO 3166-1 are announced in periodic newsletters, of which 10 have been released to date: # Published 1998-02-05: change of name for Samoa, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv1-ws.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv1-ws.html French] # Published 1999-10-01: change of name for Occupied Palestinian Territory, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv2-ps.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv2-ps.html French] # Published 2002-02-01: change of alpha-3 Code Element for Romania, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv3-rou.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv3-rou.html French] # Published 2002-05-20: change of name for various countries, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv4-div.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv4-div.html French] # Published 2002-05-20: change of name and codes for East Timor, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv5-tl.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv5-tl.html French] # Published 2002-11-15: change of name and codes for Timor-Leste, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv6-tl.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv6-tl.html French] # Published 2002-11-15: change of official name of Comoros , available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv7-km.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv7-km.html French] # Published 2003-07-23: deletion of Yugoslavia, inclusion of Serbia and Montenegro, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv8-cs.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv8-cs.html French] # Published 2004-02-13: new entry for Åland Islands, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv9-ax.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv9-ax.html French] # Published 2004-04-26: change of name for Afghanistan and Åland Islands, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv10-div.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv10-div.html French]

Reference

Information on reserved codes taken from "Reserved code elements under ISO 3166-1" published by Secretariat of ISO/TC 46, ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, 2001-02-13, available on request from ISO 3166 MA.

External links

- [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.html ISO 3166/MA] – ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency at the International Organization for Standardization – includes up-to-date lists of two-letter codes.
- [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49.htm United Nations Statistics Division – Standard Country or Area Codes for Statistical Use] – includes three-letter and numeric codes.
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/appendix/appendix-d.html CIA World Factbook – Cross-Reference List of Country Data Codes] (public domain)
- [http://www.davros.org/misc/iso3166.html a list of ISO 3166-1 codes] (including three-letter and numeric codes), and includes information about changes that have been made over the years.
- [http://www.wout-bosteels.be/countries.xml an xml document] containing country codes and country names in 7 languages.
- [http://tobiasconradi.com/geography/ CSV-file and website] in unicode, containing codes and country names in 30 languages 1 Category:Lists of countries Category:Country codes ko:ISO 3166-1 th:ISO 3166-1

Internet

:For the more general networking concept, see internetworking. The Internet, or simply the Net, is the worldwide system of interconnected computer networks which makes information stored on it accessible. This information is transmitted by packet switching using a standardized Internet Protocol (IP) and many other protocols. It is made up of thousands of smaller commercial, academic, domestic and government networks. It carries various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.

Creation of the Internet

During the 1950s, several communications researchers realized that there was a need to allow general communication between users of various computers and communications networks. This led to research into decentralized networks, queuing theory, and packet switching. The subsequent creation of ARPANET in the United States in turn catalyzed a wave of technical developments that made it the basis for the development of the Internet. Contrary to popular myth, the DoD did not create the ARPANET so that they could communicate to the US Government after a nuclear war. The first TCP/IP wide area network was operational in 1984 when the United States' National Science Foundation (NSF) constructed a university network backbone that would later become the NSFNet. It was then followed by the opening of the network to commercial interests in 1995. Important separate networks that offered gateways into, then later merged into the Internet include Usenet, Bitnet and the various commercial and educational X.25 networks such as Compuserve and JANET. The ability of TCP/IP to work over these pre-existing communication networks allowed for a great ease of growth. Use of Internet as a phrase to describe a single global TCP/IP network originated around this time. The collective network gained a public face in the 1990s. In August 1991 CERN in Switzerland publicized the new World Wide Web project, two years after Tim Berners-Lee had begun creating HTML, HTTP and the first few web pages at CERN in Switzerland. In 1993 the Mosaic web browser version 1.0 was released, and by late 1994 there was growing public interest in the previously academic/technical Internet. By 1996 the word "Internet" was common public currency, but it referred almost entirely to the World Wide Web. Meanwhile, over the course of the decade, the Internet successfully accommodated the majority of previously existing public computer networks (although some networks such as FidoNet have remained separate). This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.

Today's Internet

FidoNets, FTP client, and Telnet client]] Apart from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is held together by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (for example peering agreements) and by technical specifications or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is essentially defined by its interconnections and routing policies. In an often-cited, if perhaps gratuitously mathematical definition, Seth Breidbart once described the Internet as "the largest equivalence class in the reflexive, transitive, symmetric closure of the relationship 'can be reached by an IP packet from'". Unlike older communications systems, the Internet protocol suite was deliberately designed to be independent of the underlying physical medium. Any communications network, wired or wireless, that can carry two-way digital data can carry Internet traffic. Thus, Internet packets flow through wired networks like copper wire, coaxial cable, and fiber optic; and through wireless networks like Wi-Fi. Together, all these networks, sharing the same high-level protocols, form the Internet. The Internet protocols originate from discussions within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and its working groups, which are open to public participation and review. These committees produce documents that are known as Request for Comments documents (RFCs). Some RFCs are raised to the status of Internet Standard by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB). Some of the most used protocols in the Internet protocol suite are IP, TCP, UDP, DNS, PPP, SLIP, ICMP, POP3, IMAP, SMTP, HTTP, HTTPS, SSH, Telnet, FTP, LDAP, SSL, and TLS. Some of the popular services on the Internet that make use of these protocols are e-mail, Usenet newsgroups, file sharing, Instant Messenger, the World Wide Web, Gopher, session access, WAIS, finger, IRC, MUDs, and MUSHs. Of these, e-mail and the World Wide Web are clearly the most used, and many other services are built upon them, such as mailing lists and blogs. The Internet makes it possible to provide real-time services such as Internet radio and webcasts that can be accessed from anywhere in the world. Some other popular services of the Internet were not created this way, but were originally based on proprietary systems. These include IRC, ICQ, AIM, and Gnutella. There have been many analyses of the Internet and its structure. For example, it has been determined that the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of scale-free networks. Similar to how the commercial Internet providers connect via Internet exchange points, research networks tend to interconnect into large subnetworks such as:
- GEANT
- Internet2
- GLORIAD These in turn are built around relatively smaller networks. See also the list of academic computer network organizations In network schematic diagrams, the Internet is often represented by a cloud symbol, into and out of which network communications can pass.

Internet culture

The Internet is also having a profound impact on work, leisure, knowledge and worldviews. worldviews]]

ICANN

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is the authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers on the Internet, including domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers. A globally unified namespace (i.e., a system of names in which there is one and only one holder of each name) is essential for the Internet to function. ICANN is headquartered in Marina del Rey, California, but is overseen by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and non-commercial communities. The US government continues to have a privileged role in approving changes to the root zone file that lies at the heart of the domain name system. Because the Internet is a distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected networks, the Internet, as such, has no governing body. ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body on the global Internet, but the scope of its authority extends only to the Internet's systems of domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers.

The World Wide Web

Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Google, millions worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data. Some companies and individuals have adopted the use of 'weblogs' or blogs, which are largely used as easily-updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is Microsoft, via whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work. For more information on the distinction between the World Wide Web and the Internet itself — as in everyday use the two are sometimes confused — see Dark internet where this is discussed in more detail.

Remote access

The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working book-keepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private, leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice. An office worker away from his or her desk, perhaps the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can open a remote desktop session into his or her normal office PC using a secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives him or her complete access to all their normal files and data, including e-mail and other applications, while they are away.

Collaboration

This low-cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge and skills has revolutionized some, and given rise to whole new, areas of human activity. One example of this is the collaborative development and distribution of Free/Libre/Open-Source Software (FLOSS) such as Linux, Mozilla and OpenOffice.org. See Collaborative software.

File-sharing

A computer file can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networking. In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication; the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption and money may change hands before or after access to the file is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example a credit card whose details are also passed - hopefully fully encrypted - across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a world-wide basis, are changing the basis for the production, sale and distribution of many types of product, wherever they can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of office documents, publications, software products, music, photography, video, animations, graphics and the other arts. This in turn is causing seismic shifts in each of the existing industry associations, such as the RIAA and MPAA, that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products.

Streaming media and VoIP

Many existing radio and television broadcasters have provided Internet 'feeds' of their live audio and video streams (for example, the BBC). They have been joined by a range of pure Internet 'broadcasters' who never had on-air licences. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a TV or radio receiver. The range of material is much wider, from pornography to highly specialised technical web-casts. The simplest equipment can allow anybody, with little censorship or licencing control, to broadcast on a worldwide basis. Time-shift viewing or listening is not a problem as the BBC have shown with their Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. Web-cams can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon. In this case the picture may update only slowly - perhaps once every few seconds or slower, but Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal or the traffic at a local roundabout live and in real time. Video chat rooms, video conferencing, and remote controllable webcams have become popular. Some people install webcams in their bedrooms that can be accessed by other voyeurs, often with two-way sound. VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to some of the Instant Messaging systems that took off around the turn of the millennium. In recent years many people and organizations have made VoIP systems as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the actual voice traffic is carried by the Internet, VoIP is free or costs much less than an actual telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on ADSL or DSL Internet connections anyway. The disadvantages are that it is still difficult to initiate a call with someone, unless they also have a VoIP phone or are at their computer and that there are still several competing standards that are mitigating against universal acceptance. In all of these cases, existing large organisations, that have grown accustomed to regular incomes for their services, are finding increased competition in their service areas, coming directly from the Internet. While newcomers strive to make these inroads, the traditional industries are having to adapt, adopt, complain or suffer. Meanwhile the consumer in each case most probably benefits from the increased range of services and possible price reductions. Some worry about censorship and control while others see a continuing globalisation of culture and norms.

Language

Main article: English on the Internet The most prevalent language for communication on the Internet is English. This may be due to the Internet's origins or to the growing role of English as an international language. It may also be related to the poor capability of early computers to handle characters other than those in the basic Latin alphabet (see Unicode). After English (32 % of web visitors) the most-requested languages on the world wide web are Chinese 13 %, Japanese 8 %, Spanish 6 %, German 6 % and French 4 %. (From [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm Internet World Stats]) By continent, 33 % of the world's Internet users are based in Asia, 29 % in Europe and 23 % in North America.[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm] The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years that good facilities are available for development and communication in most widely used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake still remain.

Cultural awareness

From a cultural awareness perspective, the Internet has been both an advantage and a liability. For people who are interested in other cultures it provides a significant amount of information and an interactivity that would be unavailable otherwise. However, for people who are not interested in other cultures there is some evidence indicating that the Internet enables them to avoid contact to a greater degree than ever before.

Censorship

Some countries, such as Iran and the People's Republic of China, restrict what people in their countries can see on the Internet, especially unwanted political and religious content. In the Western world, it is Germany that has the highest rate of censorship. Internet Service Providers are required by law to block some sites that contain child pornography or Nazi or Islamist propaganda. Censorship is sometimes done through government sponsored censoring filters, or by means of law or culture, making the propagation of targeted materials extremely hard. At the moment most Internet content is available regardless of where one is in the world, so long as one has the means of connecting to it.

Internet access

Germany Common methods of home access include dial-up, landline broadband (over coaxial cable, fiber optic or copper wires), Wi-Fi, satellite and cell phones. Public places to use the Internet include libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in many public places like airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee based. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can do so to the Internet itself. Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi-cafes, where a would-be user needs to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. The whole campus or park, or even the entire city can be enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular or mobile phone networks, and fixed wireless services. These services have not enjoyed widespread success due to their high cost of deployment, which is passed on to users in high usage fees. New wireless technologies such as WiMAX have the potential to alleviate these concerns and enable simple and cost effective deployment of metropolitan area networks covering large, urban areas. There is a growing trend towards wireless mesh networks, which offer a decentralized and redundant infrastructure and are often considered the future of the Internet. Broadband access over power lines was approved in 2004 in the United States in the face of stiff resistance from the amateur radio community. The problem with modulating a carrier signal onto power lines is that an above-ground power line can act as a giant antenna and jam long-distance radio frequencies used by amateurs, seafarers and others. Countries where Internet access is available to a majority of the population include Germany, India, China, Chile, Iceland, Finland, Sweden, Greece, Italy, Australia, Denmark, the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, South Korea and Norway. The use of the Internet around the world has been growing rapidly over the last decade, although the growth rate seems to have slowed somewhat after 2000. The phase of rapid growth is ending in industrialized countries, as usage becomes ubiquitous there, but the spread continues in Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Middle East. However, there are still problems for many. ADSL and other broadband access are rare or nonexistent in most developing countries. Even in developed countries, high prices, mediocre performance and access restrictions often limit its uptake. Within individual countries, wide differences may exist between larger cities (often having multiple providers of broadband access) and some rural areas, where no broadband access may be available at all. The expansion of the availability of Internet access is a way to bridge the so-called digital divide.

Capitalization conventions

In formal usage, Internet is traditionally written with a capital first letter. The Internet Society, the Internet Engineering Task Force, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, the World Wide Web Consortium, and several other Internet-related organizations all use this convention in their publications. In English grammar, proper nouns are capitalized. Most newspapers, newswires, periodicals, and technical journals also capitalize the term. Examples include the New York Times, the Associated Press, Time, The Times of India, Hindustan Times and Communications of the ACM. In other cases, the first letter is often written small (internet), and many people are not aware of any convention of using a capital letter. Some argue that internet is the correct form. Since 2000, a significant number of publications have switched to using internet. Among them are The Economist, the Financial Times, the London Times, and the Sydney Morning Herald. As of 2005, most publications using internet appear to be located outside of North America although one American news source, Wired News, has adopted the lowercase spelling.

Leisure

The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with entertaining social experiments such as MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related USENET groups receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to neta; short cartoons in the form of Flash movies are also popular. The pornography and gambling industries have both taken full advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other Web sites. Although many governments have attempted to put restrictions on both industries' use of the Internet, this has generally failed to stop their widespread popularity. One main area of leisure on the Internet is multiplayer gaming. This form of leisure creates communities, bringing people of all ages and origins to enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing games to online gambling. This has revolutionized the way many people interact and spend their free time on the Internet. Online gaming began with services such as GameSpy and MPlayer, which players of games would typically subscribe to. Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of gameplay or certain games. With the release of Diablo by Blizzard Entertainment, gamers were treated to a built in online game service that was free of charge. With Blizzard's next game, StarCraft, the gaming world saw an explosion in the numbers of players using the Internet to play multi-player games. StarCraft may have been the first non-MMO game in which most players utilized the online gameplay as opposed to the single-player gameplay. Online gaming has progressed so much in the last 10 years that gamers earn a living from being a professional at the subject by winning tournaments and prizes as well as signing sponsor deals. Because there is a large support for certain online games, a new community has been born for people modding games, where users edit games to add a whole new element to it. This is how games such as Counter-Strike were born from the Half-Life Gaming Engine. Cyberslacking has become a serious drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spends 57 minutes a day surfing, according to a study by Peninsula Business Services[http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=914&id=1001802003].

A complex system

Many computer scientists see the Internet as a "prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly complex system" (Willinger, et al). The Internet is extremely heterogeneous. (For instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary widely.) The Internet exhibits "emergent phenomena" that depend on its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity.

Marketing

The Internet has also become a big market, and the biggest companies today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient low-cost advertising and commerce through the Internet. It is the fastest way to spread information to a vast community of people all at once. The Internet has revolutionized shopping –– a person can order a CD online and receive it in the mail within a couple of days, or download it directly in some cases.

Criticism

Many hyperlinks are outdated as time takes its toll on the existence of URL weblinks. These weblinks are often times defunct and are retained as hyperlinks for extended timeframes as a result of laziness or being busy enough to be sidetracked away from updating webpages. This is a common hoax for people who are fans in the field of what those links provide them with/to.

External links

General

- [http://www.channel101.com/ Internet TV Stations]
- [http://www.isoc.org/ The Internet Society (ISOC)]
- [http://www.techterms.org/internet.php Internet Dictionary] - Definitions of Internet-related terms
- [http://www.experienced-people.co.uk/1099-webmaster-glossary/ The Alternate Internet Glossary] (Humor)
- A [http://www.illusivecreations.com Calgary Web Design] company that has put together over 300 articles about the internet and web development. You can view them by going [http://www.illusivecreations.com/articles/ here].
- [http://www.clickz.com/stats/sectors/geographics/article.php/5911_151151 Internet access stats]
- [http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/ Glossary of Computer and Internet Terms]
- [http://scoreboard.keynote.com/scoreboard/Main.aspx?Login=Y&Username=public&Password=public Internet Health Report] from Keynote
- [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats]

Articles

- [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/29/business/net.php "EU and U.S. clash over control of the Net" - International Herald Tribune article by Tom Wright]
- [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.08/intro.html "10 Years that changed the world" - WiReD looks back at the evolution of the Internet over last 10 years]
- [http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/digital-imprimatur/ John Walker: The Digital Imprimatur]
- [http://www.addressingtheworld.info addressingtheworld.info] - website accompanying a book (ISBN 0742528103) on the history of DNS
- [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm How Stuff Works explanation of the Infrastructure of the Internet]
- [http://www.searchandgo.com/articles/internet/net-explained-1.php Internet Explained] Seven part article explaining the origins to the present and a future look at the Internet.
- [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,64596,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_7 "It's Just the 'internet' Now" - Wired.com article by Tony Long]

History

- [http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml The Internet Society History Page]
- [http://www.internetvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.txt How the Internet Came to Be]
- [http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/ Hobbes' Internet Timeline v7.0]
- [http://www.ciolek.com/PAPERS/e-scholarship2000.html Futures and Non-futures for Scholarly Internet. ]
- [http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/internet_history.html History of the Internet links]
- [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc801.txt RFC 801, planning the TCP/IP switchover]
- [http://www.archive.org/ Internet Archive] - A searchable database of old cached versions of websites dating back to 1996
- A list of lectures, some of which relate to the Internet, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is available [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Comparative-Media-Studies/CMS-930Media--Education--and-the-MarketplaceFall2001/VideoLectures/index.htm here]. Of particular interest is lecture #3 The Next Big Thing: Video Internet which is delivered in Real Player format. The lecture gives a brief history of networking; discusses convergence between the internet/telephone/television networks; the expansion of broadband access; makes predictions about the future of delivery of video over the internet.

References

- Walter Willinger, Ramesh Govindan, Sugih Jamin, Vern Paxson, and Scott Shenker. (2002). Scaling phenomena in the Internet. In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, suppl. 1, 2573 – 2580. Category:Communication Category:Digital media Category:Internet Category:Digital Revolution Category:Technology Category:Computer networks Category:Networks ko:인터넷 ms:Internet ja:インターネット simple:Internet th:อินเทอร์เน็ต fiu-vro:Internet

Category:Eritrea

Category:African countries Category:Eastern Africa Category:North Africa ko:분류:에리트레아 ja:Category:エリトリア

Sutherland Shire

Sutherland Shire is a Local Government Area in southern Sydney, Australia. Geographically, it is the area to the south of Botany Bay. It is known colloquially as simply "The Shire". Sutherland Shire is predominantly a residential area but also has substantial industrial, commercial and rural areas. The major areas of the shire are the suburbs of Yarrawarrah; Engadine; Sutherland; Illawong; Alfords Point; Menai; Gymea; Miranda, home to a large Westfield shopping centre (traditionally known as Miranda Fair); Caringbah; and Cronulla. The Sutherland Shire also includes the village of Kurnell, close to the first landing site of James Cook, Sydney's oil refinery and Towra Point Nature Reserve, a wetland of international importance. The Shire is also where Australia's first and only nuclear facility is based, at Lucas Heights. The reactor, run by the Australian Nuclear Science & Technology Organisation does not produce electicity but is used for research and irradiation. There are three national parks partially within the Sutherland Shire: Botany Bay National Park, Heathcote National Park and the Royal National Park. The isolated suburb of Bundeena is situated between the northern edge of the Royal National park and the Hacking River. It is only accessable by ferry from Cronulla or by car (during the day) through the park. This area was jolted by riots (2005_Cronulla_race_riots) in December 2005, which have been linked to tensions between Lebanese and European communities. Both the Prime Minister Howard and Opposition Leader Kim Beazley claim that Australia is not a racist nation, a claim refuted by community leaders and other members of parliament.
- [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200512/s1529537.htm]

History

Aboriginal heritage

The original inhabitants of the Sutherland area were the Dharawal Aboriginal people. Archaeological work in the Sutherland Shire has revealed evidence for Aboriginal settlement dating back at least 5000 years. Within the Royal National Park alone, field surveys have revealed not less than 150 Aboriginal rock shelters, open camping grounds, rock engravings, paintings and axe-grinding marks. The Port Hacking district was a recognised camping ground where Aboriginal tribes from the Illawarra district gathered annually. Here too was the ancient crossing place for the South Coast Aborigines on their winter walkabout to the north. One of the most fertile areas of study has been the Kurnell Peninsula. Since 1968 archaeologists have uncovered parts of an extensive open-air midden or cooking and camp site. Successive layers of habitation show the diet of the native Aborigines - oysters, mussels, snapper, bream, and Sydney cockle. There is also evidence of seal, dolphin, a range of marsupials, dingo and even whale. Several edge-ground axes were also found.

European settlement

European discovery of what is now Sutherland Shire was made by Lieutenant James Cook, who entered Botany Bay on 29 April 1770. Cook and his party explored around Kurnell Peninsula, and left the bay on May 6. During their brief stay, a Scottish seaman named Forbus Sutherland died of tuberculosis. In his honour, Cook named the northwest point of the peninsula Point Sutherland. Following defeat in the War of American Independence, the British government chose Botany Bay as the site of a new outlet for unwanted convicts. The First Fleet under Governor Arthur Phillip anchored off Kurnell 18 January 1788. After sending a party to clear land for settlement, Phillip soon realised the area was unsuitable. There was lack of shelter for ships, inadequate water and poor soil. On 24 January, two French ships were sighted off the coast, causing Phillip to raise English colours near Sutherland Point. Governor Phillip sailed north to explore Port Jackson, and eventually settled south of Sydney Cove. The first landowner in Sutherland Shire was James Birnie, a merchantile trader who was granted by promise 700 acres (2.8 km²) at Kurnell in 1815. After the completion of official surveying, a large part of what is now Sutherland Shire was proclaimed as the Hundred of Woronora by Governor Richard Bourke in 1835. Title to land was not granted by the Crown until 1856, before which there was practically no settlement. Timber cutting was the primary industry, supplemented by shellgathering in the Port Hacking area. With the opening of Crown Lands sales in the Shire, Thomas Holt purchased 12,000 acres (49 km²). His developmental projects included oyster farms, cattle grazing, and coal mining. The investment which proved profitable however, were his timber leases. He constructed a magnificent manor on the foreshores of Sylvania, called Sutherland House, based on English feudal lines.

Development of transport

The main mode of transport was by water. Farmers' ships sailed up the coast and into Botany Bay, Georges and Woronora rivers, avoiding the wharfage and custom dues at Port Jackson. The first public road, the Illawarra Road (now called the Old Illawarra Road) to the "Five Islands" (now Wollongong), was constructed between 1842 and 1845 with convict labour. A new southern line of road was completed in 1864, linking up with the Illawarra Road at Engadine. Today this virtually is the line of the Princes Highway, the main north-south thoroughfare through Sutherland Shire. A railway line was extended from Hurstville in 1884 to develop the rich Illawarra district. The railway brought into being firstly a huge shanty town on the heights of Como, and later developed the area into a holiday centre. Sutherland Railway Station was opened in 1885, named after John Sutherland, a Minister of Works during the 1870s who had argued most forcefully for the railway. At this time, the greater part of the Shire was connected only by access tracks. A road soon opened between the railway station and Cronulla Beach, catering mostly to families and fishing parties. This was followed by the Sutherland-Cronulla steam tram service, which was inaugurated in 1911. Not only did the service greatly increase the popularity of the Cronulla beaches, but it was of great advantage to the slowly developing business interests in the Shire. Increasing motor traffic caused a falling-off of passengers and the passenger service close in 1931. The goods sevice ceased the following year. The increased traffic with the north led to the opening of the first bridge into the Sutherland Shire, at Tom Ugly's, in 1929. The six-lane Captain Cook Bridge over the Georges River, spanning Rocky Point and Taren Point, was opened in 1965, replacing the completely inadequate ferry service.

Local government

Coastal and river frontage areas, such as Como, Cronulla, Illawarra and Yowie Bay, became popular as country retreats. A form of voluntary local government was attempted in 1888, but law and order was still administered by the court at Liverpool until 1905. In that year, the Local Government (Shires) Act provided that the whole of New South Wales be divided into shires. The State Governor, Harry Rawson selected the name, and proclaimed this district "Sutherland, No. 133" on 6 March 1906 and fixed the boundaries. At the time the Shire had 1600 residents, and it was divided into three Ridings. With only a small rates base, one of the early problems of the Council was the provision of new roads. The construction of the Sutherland-Cronulla tramway by the Railway Commissioner went far in stimulating business activity and driving land sales. The population of the Shire increased from 2896 in 1911, when the tramway opened, to over 7500 in 1913. By 1931 the population had exceeded 12,000. It was not until the early 1950s that this district of scattered dwellings, vacant blocks and quiet villages became a suburban area of Sydney. Until this time Sutherland Shire was not considered part of Sydney. Associated with this growth of population was industrial and commercial development. The Captain Cook Drive from Caringbah to Kurnell was constructed in 1953 in conjunction with the establishment in 1956 of the Australian Oil Refinery at Kurnell. At Lucas Heights, the Australian Atomic Energy Commission (now the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation) built its research station complex in 1958. In terms of residential development, one of the most imaginative home-building concepts has been Sylvania Waters. Here, individually designed family homes have been built around a series of man-made canals. The urban release of land in the Menai District, to the west of the Woronora River, commenced in the 1970s.

Geography

Under the 1853 proclamation, the western boundary of district was the Woronora River. With the formation of the shire in 1906, the western boundary was extended to take in what is now Menai. In 1919, the Illawong area was also transferred to Sutherland Shire. The Shire now has an area of 370 square kilometres, of which 173 square kilometres is state-designated national parkland. On the east the Shire has a varying landscape of rugged sea cliffs and sandy beaches, and swampy bay coasts backed by sand dunes. To the west the surface consists of a broad plateau rising gently to the southwest, and cut into by several deep river gorges.

Geology

The geology of the Sutherland Shire, whilst sharing characteristics with the North Shore, is very different from the western and central suburbs of Sydney. The oldest rock unit in the Shire is the Illawarra Coal Measures, exposed from drilling at Helensburgh where it is 305 metres below sea level. Above the coal-bearing rocks is found the Narrabeen Group, mostly made up of layers of sandstone and characteristic red claystone beds. Overlying the Narrabeen Group is the Hawkesbury Sandstone, the rock unit most characteristic of the Shire. Occasional patches of Ashfield shale overlay the Hawkesbury sandstone. Some time later than the Triassic period - possibly early Tertiary - minor volcanic activity occurred in the region. This took the form of intrusion of a number of dykes of basaltic rock which forced their way up through the sedimentary rocks. Due to the wetting and drying action of the weather the basaltic rock of the dykes has changed to clay. From the end of the Triassic period to the middle of the Tertiary period, soft material was worn down or removed by wind and running water. In the final stages of this period of erosion the climate was apparently rather wetter and more humid than today's, causing the exposed rocks to change and form laterite soil, which is abundant in the Shire.

River system

A little later in the Tertiary, tilting occurred south of the Georges River. The slow uplift, taking perhaps several million years, formed the present Woronora Plateau, a surface which rises gently in the south. This process caused the river system in the Shire to flow in steeper watercourses. They then became more active, carving the steep gorges of Woronora, Hacking, Georges Rivers and their tributaries which can be seen today. Waterfalls such as those at Waterfall and Undola also formed during this period. Water supplies within the shire are of two kinds. The main source is the surface supply provided by the Woronora Dam, which is built in the deep gorge of Woronora River. A second source exist in the form of underground water. During the last ice age, the rivers had to do additional work cutting down through the rocks to reach the lower and more distant ocean, leading to the "valley-in-valley" shape of many of the deep gorges in the Shire. When sea levels rose again, the silt and sand carried by the rivers gradually built up a considerable thickness of sediment. Sediment filled the area between Kurnell (then an island) and Miranda. Sand dunes began to accumulate in the Kurnell area and the mud and sand flats of Quibray and Gunnamatta Bays began to form. The Kurnell sand dunes have provided a cheap source of sand for the southern suburbs of Sydney but in the process of exploitation this area has been robbed of its character and the removal of vegetation has opened the way to erosion.

Royal National Park

The Premier John Robertson dedicated 18,000 acres (73 km²) to "The National Park" (now the Royal National Park) in 1879, making it the second oldest park of its kind in the world after Yellowstone in America. In 1880 the Park was increased to 33,000 acres (134 km²). Today it is just under 44,000 acres (178 km²). The National Park was given the prefix "Royal" after the visit there of Queen Elizabeth II in 1954. Before the establishment of the Park, negotiations had been proceeding for a large and isolated area of land for infantry, cavalry and gunnery training. The Trustees agreed that the western approaches be allocated for military use. At the same time, the government built a military branch line into the encampment and review area within The National Park. With federation in 1901 and the formation of the Commonwealth Military Forces, local training diminished, although the park was used by the New South Wales Field Artillery until just after the outbreak of World War One in 1914.

Plant and animal life

Social conditions

Population growth in the shire has been limited by approval of residential development. The population increased from 193,000 in 1996 to over 202,000 in 2001. Recent growth has occurred largely in the Barden Ridge and Menai areas (where the new releases of land for urban development have been) and around the main railway stations. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the population of the Shire has been largely static over the past two years, falling slightly by 0.04% in 2003 and 0.07% in 2004. The age structure of the shire is described as being an "urban mix", with a broad range of different age groups. The Sutherland Shire is generally an area of high socio-economic status, with a great proportion of high income households. Its Index of Relative Socio-Economic Disadvantage is 1079.44, the highest in southern Sydney.

Employment

38.6% of employed residents work within the Shire, whilst 61.4% work outside the Shire, especially in the Sydney CBD (16.8%). Of those employed within the Shire, 74.1% were residents. The largest occupations included clerical, sales and service workers, professionals and tradespersons. This occupational structure indicates the area is of high socio-economic status, with some of the largest occupations, such as professionals requiring a significant amount of education and training and generally returning greater income levels. The unemployment rate in Sutherland Shire was lower than the Sydney Statistical Division in 2001 (3.5% compared to 6.1%). The reason for the lower rate in Sutherland Shire includes a comparatively smaller share of the population aged 18-24, who often have higher unemployment rates than older workers (25-59).

Education

There are now nearly 100 schools in the Shire including the Gymea and Loftus Colleges of Technical and Further Education and more than twenty secondary schools. As well as preschool centres, there are schools provided to serve children with special needs. The Sutherland Shire workforce is highly educated, with significant skills derived from vocational qualifications and a large share of the population with an advanced diploma or diploma. The growth in vocational qualifications in recent years may be related to the continued growth in consumption-based, services industries.

Health

The Sutherland Shire has good health facilities with the Sutherland hospital located at Caringbah very close to most residents and many general practitioners within the area. There is also an increasing amount of specialist doctors coming into the shire.

Ethnicity

The Sutherland Shire is well known for being one of the most Caucasian areas in Sydney. Roughly 80% of its population are born in Australia, with the next countries being the United Kingdom, New Zealand and South Africa. The percentage of residents claiming Australian ancestry is among the highest in Sydney. Relative to other parts of Sydney, Sutherland Shire has a smaller proportion of overseas-born residents and less diversity in the range of countries of birth. Whilst the overseas population is growing, it is growing at a significantly slower rate than the rest of Sydney. One possible explanation for this slower rate is that the Shire's population is not highly mobile, and overseas-born residents of Australia prefer to settle in areas with other expatriates. A comparison of the top 5 nationalities in the Sutherland Shire with the Sydney Statistical Division in 2001 shows the major difference was a lower share of the population born in the People's Republic of China. In December 2005, The Sydney Morning Herald and other local press began carrying reports about violent incidents occuring on beaches such as Cronulla Beach. Some of the locals interviewed in these reports have claimed that the violence is being provoked by gangs of young Middle Eastern men from outside areas and that it has been occuring for over two years. Some media reports suggest that this violence is at least partly ethnically-motivated. A text message has been circulating in Sutherland Shire in response to the violence, urging '"Aussies" to take revenge against "Lebs and wogs". [http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/muscling-up-on-beach-gangs/2005/12/08/1133829688767.html].

Religion

The Sutherland Shire has recently been known as Sydney's second bible belt (The first is the Hills District). Religious conservatism is deeply ingrained among many Shire residents which is present with the area being a safe Liberal seat. More than three-quarters of the population professed a religion in 2001, which is an unusually high level. Like many areas across Australia, the top five religions in Sutherland Shire in 2001 were all forms of Christianity, with the largest groups including Catholics, Anglicans and Uniting Church adherents. Sutherland Shire also noted very little change in the share of persons with non-Christian beliefs between 1996 and 2001, which was against the broader pattern of growth.

Cultural life

Uniting Church

Commerce and industry

Miranda is the commercial centre of the Shire with two other major shopping centres, Kiora Mall and Miranda Marketplace along with Miranda Fair. Miranda Fair, managed by Westfield, has several departmental stores and many specialist stores all set in artistically planned promenades with under and above ground parking. Other suburban shopping centres, in Engadine, Caringbah and Sylvania have also flourished. Major neighbourhood shopping centres have also developed at Bangor, Illawong and Menai together with a small centre at Alfords Point. These centres are indicative of the decentralisation of commerce, accelerating the decline of the ubiquitous 'corner shop'.

Politics

The Sutherland Shire contains two Federal Government electorates, Cook (which includes Caringbah, Miranda and Cronulla) and Hughes (which includes Sutherland, Menai, Engadine, Alfords Point, and Gymea). The Sutherland Shire is viewed as being one of the more conservative, even "parochial", areas in Australia. Bruce Baird is the federal MP for Cook, and is a member of the conservative Liberal Party. Danna Vale is the federal MP for Hughes, and is also a member of the conservative Liberal Party, she also was the former minister for Veterans' Affairs.

Notable residents

- Ian Thorpe
- Ricky Ponting
- Jason Stevens
- Mat Rogers
- Brett Kimmorley
- Andrew Ettinghausen
- Robert Tickner
- Steve Waugh
- Dina Lee
- Susie Moroney
- Shane Heal

Suburbs

Suburbs in the shire are:
- Alfords Point
- Audley
- Bangor
- Bangor Heights
- Barden Ridge
- Bonnet Bay
- Bonnie Vale
- Bundeena
- Burraneer
- Burraneer Bay
- Burraneer Point
- Caravan Head
- Caringbah
- Caringbah North
- Caringbah South
- Como
- Como West
- Coronation Bay
- Cronulla
- Cronulla South
- Curracurrang
- Curracurrong
- Dolans Bay
- Engadine
- Fishermans Bay
- Forest Island
- Fosters Flat
- Garie
- Garie Beach
- Grays Point
- Gundamaian
- Gunnamatta Bay
- Gymea
- Gymea Bay
- Heathcote
- Illawong
- Jannali
- Jannali West
- Kangaroo Point
- Kareela
- Kirrawee
- Kirrawee South
- Kurnell
- Lilli Pilli
- Loftus
- Loftus Heights
- Lucas Heights
- Maianbar
- Mansion Point
- Menai
- Menai East
- Menai Heights
- Miranda
- Miranda North
- North Cronulla
- North Engadine
- North Sutherland
- North West Arm
- Oyster Bay
- Port Hacking
- Prince Edward Park
- Royal National Park
- Sandy Point
- Sutherland
- Sylvania
- Sylvania Heights
- Sylvania Waters
- Taren Point
- The Royal National Park
- The Waterrun
- Towra Point
- Wanda
- Wanda Beach
- Warumbul
- Waterfall
- Wattamola
- Woolooware
- Woronora
- Woronora Dam
- Woronora Heights
- Yarrawarrah
- Yowie Bay
- Yowie Point

External links

- [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/Lookup2001Census/4CB7FA046F0D7F75CA256BBE00838705 2001 Census Information - Sutherland Shire West]
- [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/Lookup2001Census/A50F7EFEF7328194CA256BBE008384B8 2001 Census Information - Sutherland Shire East]
- [http://www.suthlib.nsw.gov.au/ssc/home.nsf Sutherland Shire Council website]
- [http://www.ssrguides.org/about.php?sub=areahistory History of the Sutherland Shire - Sutherland Shire Region Guides]
- [http://www.ssrguides.org/about.php?sub=map Location of the Sutherland Shire - Sutherland Shire Region Guides]
- [http://www.ssec.org.au/about_us/history.htm Sutherland Shire Environment Centre]
- [http://www.ourshire.com.au/ Sutherland Shire Online] Category:Local Government Areas of Sydney

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